Glossary of Fungi
(ab-SID-ee-ah) Absidia typically grows on decaying vegetation. Absidia belongs to a class of fast-growing fungi known as the Zygomycetes. There are 52 species in the Absidia genus; the most common is Absidia corymbifera. Absidia can grow above 37 °C and may be an opportunistic pathogen causing Zygomycoses (infects the lungs, nose, brain, eyes and skin and can be fatal), most often in immunocompromised patients. Absidia identification relies on fungal structures being present, so this genus is often only identified in cultures and bulk/surface samples.
(a-kra-MOAN-ee-um) Acremonium is a saprophyte (living on dead and decaying organic materials). Acremonium belongs to the class of fungi called Sordariomycetes. Formerly known as Cephalosporium, Acremonium was the original source of the drug Cephalosporin. Acremonium is an opportunistic pathogen causing mycetoma (infection under the skin and adjacent bones), onychomycosis (infection in the nails), and hyalohyphomycosis (a general fungal infection from a colorless fungus).
(ah-GAR-ick-al-ees) This order of fungi are a distinctive subgroup of basidiospores. They produce spores from gilled fruiting bodies (gilled mushrooms). Two of the most common edible species are Agaricus bisporus (Button/Portobello/Cremini) and Agrocybe cylindracea (Chestnut mushroom). The Agaricales group contains over 13,000 species, several of which include edible and poisonous varieties. The spores from the Agaricales group may retain the ability to cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.
(alt-er-NAIR-ee-ah) is a dematiaceous (dark), saprophytic (living on dead and decaying organic materials) fungi. Alternaria has 530 species which can produce up to 70 secondary metabolites which are toxic to plants (phytotoxins). Alternaria is a notorious plant pathogen, causing around 20% of all agricultural crop loss. It is a common allergen and an occasional opportunistic pathogen for humans. In patients who show allergy to mold, up to 70% of those patients demonstrate allergy to Alternaria. The presence of Alternaria is known to be a risk factor for the development of asthma. Some of the phytotoxins have been chemically characterized and reported to act as mycotoxins to humans and animals.
(r-thrin-EE-um) Arthrinium is a dematiaceous (dark), saprophytic (living on dead and decaying organic materials) fungi. Often considered a contaminant, Arthrinium has been reported to cause food spoilage and can cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.
(ASK-o-spores) Ascospores are ubiquitous in the outdoor environment. It is typical for ascospores to be either plant pathogens or saprophytic (living on dead and decaying organic materials). Ascospores belong to the class of fungi call Ascomycetes and have spores that grow inside a sack-like structure. The sack ruptures, releasing the spores. This group contains species which may be capable of producing mycotoxins. In air samples and many surface / bulk samples, ascospores are difficult to identify to genus level.
(Ask-O-tree-kah) Ascotricha can be found on cellulosic substrates (paper, plant debris, etc.). Ascotricha belongs to the Sordariomycetes class of fungi and is an anamorph of Dicyma. Ascotricha chartarum can act as a rare human pathogen and has been reported to cause maxillary sinusitis as well as potentially cause respiratory infections.
(asp-er-JILL-us) Aspergillus grows in a wide variety of environments and on diverse materials. Aspergillus was first catalogued in 1729 by the Italian priest and biologist Pier Antonio Micheli. Viewing the fungi under a microscope, Micheli was reminded of the shape of an aspergillum (holy water sprinkler) and named the genus accordingly.
The Aspergillus genus is comprised of over 400 species, more than 60 of which are medically relevant pathogens. Among the human opportunistic pathogenic species of Aspergillus, A. fumigatus is the primary causative agent of human infections, followed by A. flavus, A. terreus, A. niger, and A. nidulans. Some Aspergillus species produce mycotoxins, the most notable being Aflatoxin.
In air samples and many surface / bulk samples, Aspergillus spores are difficult to differentiate from Penicillium spores.
(ast-er-O-my-sees) Asteromyces was originally isolated in 1962 from decomposing seaweed and is commonly found in aquatic environments. Asteromyces cruciatis is the only species in the Asteromyces genus. Asteromyces belongs to the Leotiomycetes class of fungi. There are no known mycotoxins produced by this mold.
(ba-SID-EE-O-spores) Basidiospores are ubiquitous in the outdoor environment. Basidiospores belong to the class of fungi call Basidiomycetes and grow off a hyphal structure (basidium) attached by a narrow point. Mushrooms belong in the Basidiospore group. Many Basidiospores are not distinguishable from each other in either spore traps or surface / bulk samples. Mycotoxin production for this group is unknown.
(bell-TRAIN-EE-uh) Beltrania was originally isolated from decaying leaf material and is most often found in spore traps in outdoor samples taken in the spring or fall. Beltrania belongs to the class of fungi called Sordariomycetes. Beltrania contains 15 species. Mycotoxin production is unknown and there are no known cases of infections from Beltrania.
(bi-SPOR-uh) Not much information is known about Bispora. Bispora is a saprophyte and is found on dead or decaying wood. The Bispora genus consists of 19 species, some of which are lichenicolous (they live exclusively on lichens). Mycotoxin production is unknown and there are no known cases of infections from Bispora.
(bow-TRY-tis) Botrytis species, which thrive in cool, rainy, warm (60 °F) weather, can infect many crops. Botrytis cinerea is the most notorious cause of noble rot and grey rot in grapes. Botrytis belongs to the Leotiomycetes class of fungi. There have been no known human infections caused by Botrytis, however, it has been implicated in causing “winegrower’s lung”, where repeated exposure to the mold can cause an allergic reaction.
(kal-O-PLAK-uh) Caloplaca is a type of lichen (a fungal species growing together with either an alga or a cyanobacteria species) and has 266 species, distributed worldwide (including the Arctic and Antarctica). In 2007, a new species of Caloplaca was discovered on Santa Rosa Island, California. It was named Caloplaca obamae after Barack Obama, the first species named in his honor. Due to its high sensitivity to environmental pollution, Caloplaca, along with other lichens, are used to monitor air pollution throughout the world. Caloplaca belongs to the Lecanoromycetes class of fungi. The effects of Caloplaca on human health are unknown.
(sef-AL-O-for-uh) Cephaliophora is most commonly isolated from dung and decaying plant materials. Consisting of only 7 species, Cephaliophora belongs in a diverse group of fungi known as “cup fungi”. Cephaliophora earned this nickname based on the macro-structure they produce, which looks like a cup. Cephaliophora belongs to the Pezizomycetes class of fungi. There are two reported cases of Cephaliophora involved in causing keratitis (an eye inflammation). There are no known mycotoxins produced by this species.
(sir-AT-o-spor-EE-um) Not much is known about Ceratosporium, except that it produces radiating star-shaped conidia, which are known as tetraradiate staurosporous conidia. Researchers believe that this shape assists the fungus to disperse in aqueous environments. Ceratosporium belongs to the Sordariomycetes class of fungi. There are no records of infections caused by or mycotoxins produced by Ceratosporium species.
(sir-ko-SPOR-uh / SUE-do-sir-ko-SPOR-uh) Cercospora is a severe plant pathogen consisting of over 1,800 species. It is responsible for leaf spot and leaf blight in a wide variety of plants and is one of the top fungal crop pests. It produces the light-activated mycotoxin, Cercosporin, which acts against plants, however Cercosporin’s effects are not known on humans.
Pseudocercospora is another notorious plant pathogen, causing leaf spot on many different agricultural crops. Out of the 1,406 species, at least three are on either the USDA-regulated species list or the prioritized off-shore plant pest list for their potential to cause economic or environmental harm.
Cerebella / Monodictys / Acrodictys
(ser-EE-BELL-uh / mon-o-DICK-tis / ack-ro-DICK-tis) Cerebella belongs to the class of fungi call Dothideomycetes. There are 4 species, most of which have been found in association with Claviceps (Ergot), causing disease in grasses, such as rye and sorghum. It is not known if Cerebella produce mycotoxins, however Claviceps does produce mycotoxins. There are no known cases of Cerebella infections in humans.
Like Cerebella, Monodictys belongs to the Dothideomycetes class of fungi. Monodictys are among the class of fungi known as soft rot fungi. These fungi can degrade the cellulose in wet wood while leaving the lignin structure behind. There is a requirement for these fungi to have high nitrogen levels for wood decay to occur. Monodictys may be used as an indicator of water intrusion. There are no known cases of human infection and mycotoxin production is unknown.
Cerebella, Monodictys and Acrodictys can be difficult to distinguish from each other in air samples and some bulk/swab/tape samples, so are grouped together when the distinguishing features are absent.
(k-tome-EE-um) Chaetomium can be commonly found in the soil. Chaetomium belongs to the Ascomycetes class of fungi. Containing 296 species, Chaetomium is a fungus which causes soft rot (degrading the cellulose in wood while leaving the lignin behind) on wet wood products and decaying plant matter. Some species can be an opportunistic pathogen in immunocompromised patients, causing phaeohyphomycosis (infection from a dark mold which can be superficial or systemic). Chaetomium species produce up to 34 different mycotoxins, but the most noted are 10 varieties of chaetoglobosins.
(KLAD-O-spor-EE-um) Containing over 350 species, Cladosporium is a dark (dematiaceous) mold found in most environments; including food, plants, other organic materials, and is notably one of the only fungi that can grow on metal. Cladosporium can even be parasitic on other fungi. Cladosporium belongs to the class of fungi called Dothideomycetes. Some Cladosporium species can produce the mycotoxins Cladosporin, Epi-cladosporic acid, Fagi-cladosporic acid, and Isocladosporin. Cladosporium is noted to be an allergen and has been implicated as an opportunistic pathogen. One species, Cladosporium carrionii, can cause chromoblastomycosis, a chronic mycotic infection under the skin.
(KO-mo-KLA-thris) Comoclathris is a plant pathogen, commonly causing platyspora leaf spot on wheat, and other diseases in herbs. Comoclathris belongs to the Dothideomycetes class of fungi. Containing 28 species, Comoclathris is a holomorph (sexual form) of Alternaria. There are no known mycotoxins or cases of human infection from Comoclathris.
(ko-PRY-nus) The Coprinus group of mushrooms are commonly found in woods and meadows throughout Europe and North America. This order of fungi is a distinctive subgroup of basidiospores and like the Agaricales group, belongs to the Agaricomycetes class of fungi. The Coprinus group are known as the inky cap mushrooms. They obtained this moniker because when the spores are ready, the mushroom digests its gills to allow the spores to be dispersed in the wind. What is left behind is a black ink-like substance. Coprinus is known to produce a mycotoxin called coprine, which acts like the drug Antabuse. When alcohol is consumed with or after eating Coprinus mushrooms (up to five days later), people can have GI distress, a racing heart (tachycardia), palpitations, tingling arms and legs, headaches, salivation, and warmth and flushing.
Recently, this genus has been split into four genera: Coprinus, Parasola, Coprinopsis, and Coprinellus based on DNA results. These genera are difficult to distinguish under the microscope without a fruiting body (mushroom), so the identification of the spores of this nature are placed in the “Coprinus Group.”
(KUNN-ing-ham-ell-uh) Cunninghamella is found in the soil of generally temperate regions. Cunninghamella belongs to a group of fast-growing fungi called the Zygomycetes. Cunninghamella species, such as C. elegans and C. echinulate, are used in pharmaceutical research for their ability to transform chemical compounds to different compounds. Cunninghamella has the ability to grow at elevated temperatures above 28 °C. This thermophilic ability enables some species such as C. bertholletiae, to act as an opportunistic pathogen that can cause severe or even fatal infections in immunocompromised patients. Mycotoxin production by Cunninghamella is unknown.
(kurv-U-lair-EE-uh) Curvularia is typically found in tropical/sub-tropical environments and occasionally in temperate environments. Containing around 100 species, Curvularia is a dematiaceous (dark) mold which is a facultative plant pathogen. It is an allergen as well as an opportunistic human pathogen, most frequently causing infections in immunocompromised patients. The phaeohyphomycosis (infection from a dark pigmented mold) that results may be in the form of wound infections, skin infections, nail infections, allergic sinusitis, cerebral abscess, pneumonia, allergic bronchopulmonary disease, endocarditis, dialysis-associated peritonitis, and various disseminated infections. Mycotoxin production includes the compounds Belfedrin A, Curvularin, and Curvularol.
(die-uh-trip-AY-see-ay) Diatrypaceae can be commonly found worldwide, typically as a parasite or saprophyte on a broad range of dead or declining woody plants, particularly grapevines. Diatrypaceae is a family of fungi which consist of 29 genera, all of which belong in the Ascomycota phyla of fungi. The species are similar in appearance and can only be identified through genetic testing. Many of these genera produce a fruiting body, such as a canker or a mushroom. There has been one reported human infection by one of the genera from this family in an immunocompromised patient. There are no reported mycotoxins produced by this family of fungi.
Drechslera / Bipolaris / Helminthosporum / Exserohilum group
(drek-SLAIR-uh / bi-POLE-air-is / Hell-minth-o-SPOR-EE-um / ex-er-O-HIE-lum) Bipolaris is a saprophyte (lives on dead and decaying organic materials) and a plant pathogen, especially on warm season grasses. It is also an opportunistic pathogen, causing phaeohyphomycosis, and has been implicated in causing both superficial and systemic diseases. Some mycotoxin production has been reported by at least two species of Bipolaris. Bipolaris was once grouped under the Helminthosporium genus but is now a separate genus containing 111 species.
Drechslera is also a saprophyte and a plant pathogen, especially on cool season grasses. Some species produce a variety of mycotoxins, including Cytochalasin B, sterigmatocystins, and an herbicidal compound called holadysenterine. Drechslera has been implicated in causing allergic fungal sinusitis.
Exserohilum is a dematiaceous (dark) fungus which was once grouped under the name Helminthosporium. These fungi are plant pathogens, especially on grasses. Exserohilum is an allergen and an opportunistic pathogen, having caused 33 cases of infections prior to 2012. In 2012, Exserohilum rostratum (aka Setosphaeria rostrata) was identified by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as the pathogen responsible for almost all cases and fatalities in the New England Compounding Center meningitis outbreak, which resulted in 404 cases with 29 fatalities. Infection in these cases resulted from injection of medication that had been contaminated by the fungus during production.
Bipolaris, Drechslera, Helminthosporium and Exserohilum are difficult to distinguish from each other on spore traps and some bulk samples. As a result, these fungi may be grouped together when the identity is not completely clear.
(ep-EE-kok-um) Epicoccum is a saprophytic fungus (living on dead and decaying organic materials). It is a dematiaceous (dark) mold which is comprised of around 50 species. Epicoccum belongs to the Dothideomycetes class of fungi. One species, Epicoccum nigrum, produces soluble pigments which have antibacterial activity. Epicoccum is not known to cause any infections.
(few-SAIR-EE-ell-uh) Fusariella is saprophytic (living on dead and decaying organic materials) fungi and belongs to the class of fungi called Sordariomycetes. Mycotoxin production is unknown and there are no known cases of infections from Fusariella.
(few-SAIR-EE-um) Fusarium is commonly found in the soil and is saprophytic (living on dead and decaying organic materials). Fusarium belongs to the Sordariomycetes class of fungi. Consisting of over 325 species, Fusarium is a notorious plant pathogen worldwide, acting as the causative agent of Fusarium wilt, crown rot, head blight, scab, among wide variety of other plant diseases. There is an entire research center dedicated to the study of Fusarium at Penn State. Fusarium is both an allergen and an opportunistic pathogen, causing fusariosis. Twelve species have been associated with fusarosis, which can take the form of superficial (skin), locally invasive, or systemic infections; the most virulent is Fusarium solani. Fusarium is very well known for the vast array of mycotoxins they produce (around 57 different types), including Beauvericin, Fumonisins, Trichothecenes, Vomitoxin, and Zeralenones.
(fuze-EE-klaid-EE-um) Fusicladium is a plant pathogen, causing a black scab on the fruits of trees, especially apples, pears, and pecans. Fusicladium effusum is considered one of the most destructive diseases in pecan orchards. Its optimal temperature is between 5 °C and 25 °C, preferring to sporulate on the cuticle of leaves and fruits when there is a film of water present. Fusicladium belongs to the Dothideomycetes class of fungi. There are no known human or animal cases of Fusicladium infections. There is no known mycotoxin production by Fusicladium.
(gan-O-DERM-uh) Ganoderma, of the fungi class Agaricomycetes, is a wood-rotting fungus which produces a mushroom body and enzymes called ligninases (white rot). Ganoderma can grow on both conifers (pine) and hardwoods. Some species are the cause of Ganoderma butt rot in trees (especially Palm trees), where the lower trunk and roots rot due to the infection, which usually starts due to a wound. Once the infection starts, there is no cure for the tree. The most noted species is Ganoderma lucidium, also known as the Reishi mushroom. G. lucidium has not only been used for bioremediation (cleaning up contaminants like oil spills) but produces a wide variety of enzymes which are being investigated for health benefits, such as anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiviral, antibacterial, and even antifungal properties. Ganoderma may retain the ability to cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.
(gee-O-TRICK-um) Geotrichum is found in soils worldwide. Geotrichum belongs to the Saccharomycetes class of fungi. It is a rapid growing fungus which can also grow as yeast. It is the causative agent of sour rot in fruits (especially citrus) and vegetables. Geotrichum candidum is used by the cheese making industry for its lipolytic abilities to break down fats to create distinctive cheese flavors and to cover the cheese as protection from other microorganisms. Geotrichum can be isolated from normal human flora but can become an opportunistic pathogen in immunocompromised patients. Geotrichum is not known to produce mycotoxins.
(glee-o-KLAID-EE-um) Gliocladium is commonly found in the soil where it suppresses a variety of soil borne plant pathogens such as Pythium, Rhizoctonia, and Sclerotium (each cause types of root diseases in plants. Due to this unique characteristic, Gliocladium was one of the first fungi registered as a biological control for plant diseases by W.R. Grace in 1990 under the names of GlioGard™ and SoilGard™. Gliocladium has not been known to cause any animal or human diseases.
Gliocladium and Trichoderma spores are very similar in appearance. Identification can only be made when growth structures (hyphae) are present (tape lifts, bulk samples, cultures).
Helicodendron / Helicoma / Helicomina / Helicomyces / Helicosporium
(hell-ick-O-den-drun) Within the order of imperfect fungi called Moniliales is a subgroup called Helicospores. This group is characterized by the unique, coiled microscopic morphology (shape) of the spores produced from varying genera. Included within Helicospores are saprophytes (living on dead and decaying organic materials) such as Helicosporium, Helicoma, Helicodendron, and Helicomyces as well as plant parasites such as Helicomina. Little is known regarding the effects of Helicospores on human health.
Most fungi grow on long, thin filaments known as hyphae (singular is hypha). Much like a plant, most fungi bear its fruit (spore) on its branches (hyphae). The sampling process causes hyphae and some spore structures to be disrupted and those fragments can be observed during analysis. Although most fragments cannot reproduce a full organism (some can), the presence of hyphae or spore fragments may be an indication that a fungal colony is present. Hyphae and spore fragments may retain the ability to cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.
(mem-non-EE-ell-uh) Memnoniella grows on wood products, such as paper, wood, wallboard, etc. which are saturated with water. Memnoniella belongs to the Sordariomycetes class of fungi. Memnoniella is genetically similar to Stachybotrys and is often grouped in the Stachybotrys genera. Memnoniella however, produces spores in a chain like Penicillium rather than in a slime mass typical of Stachybotrys. Memnoniella species can produce mycotoxins which may affect human health, such as Cyclosporins, Trichothecenes, riseofulvins and more. Any evidence of disease associated with Memnoniella is a result of mycotoxins; there is no evidence of Memnoniella as a pathogen.
Myxomycete / Periconia / Rust / Smut
(mix-o-MY-seat / pair-EE-kone-EE-uh / Rust / Smut) Myxomycetes are commonly known as slime molds, which are protozoans that use spores for reproduction. They typically exist as single-celled organisms, feeding on bacteria and fungi growing on rotting wood, until food becomes scarce. At that point, they migrate together to form a fruiting body which looks much like a mushroom. There have been over 100 biologically active compounds isolated from myxomycetes, some with antimicrobial and anticancer properties. There are no known infections from Myxomycetes, however the spores may be a source of allergens for sensitized individuals.
Periconia is an endophytic (living inside plants) fungus found worldwide. Periconia circinata is known to cause Milo disease in sorghum, but other species appear to live together with plants without causing disease. Periconia has been reported to produce a variety of compounds based on its host plant, such as Piperine isolated from the Piper longum plant, and terpenoids which have anti-cancer properties, isolated from the Annona muricata plant. Periconia has not been known to be involved in any human infection, however, is a known allergen.
Rusts are obligatory parasites on plants (they must have live plants) and cannot function as saprophytes (living on dead and decaying organic materials). The name, rust, is due to the rust color that develops on the plant when it is infected. In order to survive outside of the host, rusts can produce up to five distinctive spore types in one life cycle. This group is considered one of the most harmful pathogens to agriculture, horticulture, and forestry. More than $5 billion are lost to cereal rusts (leaf rust, stem rust, and stripe rust) each year. Stem rust is one of the major diseases of wheat and barley (the largest and sixth largest food crops in the world respectively). Puccinia and Rusts are not a known source of mycotoxins or human infection.
Smuts are an important parasitic pathogen on grasses, especially corn. The name comes from the appearance of the sooty black material (Smut spores) inside a gall that is easily dislodged from the plant. Like Rusts and Myxomycetes, Smuts are a class of fungi incorporating several genera of which include the economically important Ustilago, Tilletia, Entyloma, and Urocystis. Corn smut is considered a delicacy in Mexico, where it is known as “huitlacoche”. Smuts are not a known source of mycotoxins or human infection.
These spores are often difficult to distinguish one another. In samples, spore identification may be grouped as Myxomycete / Periconia / Rust / Smut unless the identity of the spore is certain.
(ni-grow-SPOR-uh) Nigrospora is a dematiaceous (dark) fungi that is saprophytic (living on dead and decaying organic materials). Containing 15 species, Nigrospora is a plant pathogen with a diverse range of host plants, from corn to bananas and grasses. Nigrospora sphaerica is the best-known species, producing the antibiotic, Aphidicolin, a potent antiviral and antimitotic agent and DNA polymerase inhibitor. Other extracts from Nigrospora are currently under investigation for their antileukemic, antileishmanial, and antifungal properties. Nigrospora is a rare opportunistic pathogen, usually involved with eye or skin infections.
Estimates of the total number of species of Fungi vary greatly with some authorities predicting well over 1 million unique species. With the true number unknown, it is not only unreasonable but impossible to identify every fungus encountered. Moody Labs participates in internal and external proficiency testing in order to competently identify the most common fungi pertinent to environmental health and safety. Often, extenuating factors can result in an inability to identify fungal spores. These factors include, but are not limited to, occlusion due to the presence of debris, the age and health of spores which can often conceal important identifying characteristics, and environmental stress leading to abnormal growth for the organism.
(owe-id-EE-um / per-on-O-SPOR-uh) Mildew commonly refers to light gray or white growth on the surface of a plant as opposed to colored growth throughout the plant. Oidium is the causative agent for one of the two types of agriculturally based mildews; powdery mildew. This mildew can particularly be found on grapes, onions, and strawberries. Oidium lactis is integral in the production of Camembert cheese and contributes to the cheese’s characteristic flavor and consistency. Oidium growth on grapes can be catastrophic and was responsible for threatening the future of the winemaking profession in the mid 1800’s.
Peronospora is the causative agent for the other of the two types of agriculturally based mildew; downy mildew. In addition, Peronospora contributes to leaf spot and tobacco blue mold disease.
Though both Oidium and Peronospora are causative agents of mildew, Oidium belongs to the Leotiomycetes class of fungi whereas Peronospora belongs to the Oomycetes class.
Oidium and Peronospora have not been known to produce mycotoxins or cause human infections.
(pay-sill-o-MY-sees) Paecilomyces is commonly found in the soil and has been found on plant roots and seeds. Paecilomyces belongs to the Eurotiomycetes class of fungi and many species belong in a class of fungi known as entomopathogenic (insect-killing) fungi. Others of this species; Paecilomyces variotii, Paecilomyces marquandii, and Paecilomyces lilanicus, have caused opportunistic diseases in humans, including corneal ulcer, keratitis, endophthalmitis, endocarditis, osteomyelitis, peritonitis, and others. Paecilomyces has also been implicated in allergies. Some mycotoxins, including Leucinostatins, have been reported to be produced by Paecilomyces.
(pen-a-SILL-EE-um) Penicillium is found in soils across the globe and is a saprophyte on organic materials. The drug penicillin is derived from a species of Penicillium after its antibiotic properties were discovered in the groundbreaking experiments conducted by Alexander Fleming in 1928. Penicillin revolutionized the medical field.
Containing over 600 species and subspecies, Penicillium is also used for food production, yet is one of the main causes of food spoilage. Penicillium camemberti is used to make Camembert and Brie cheeses while P. glaucum is used to make Gorgonzola. Other species are used for industrial purposes, such as making tartaric acid, citric acid, and gluconic acids. A few species are pathogenic to animals, some produce mycotoxins such as Ochratoxin A. One species, P. marneffei, can cause systemic infections affecting mostly immunocompromised patients, however it is only found in Southeast Asia.
In air samples and many surface / bulk samples, Penicillium spores are difficult to differentiate from Aspergillus spores.
(pest-a-lo-sha) Pestalotia is a secondary pathogen, primarily acting as a saprophyte (living on dead and decaying organic materials) and causing infection in a weakened or wounded plant. It causes gray leaf spot, tip blight in conifers, root rot, and other diseases. Pestalotia belongs to the Sordariomycetes class of fungi. There are no known cases of human infection and mycotoxin production is unknown.
(pith-o-MY-sees) Pithomyces is a dematiaceous (dark) plant pathogen, particularly on grasses and leaves. Pithomyces belongs to the Dothideomycetes class of fungi. Pithomyces chartarum is known to produce a mycotoxin, Sporidesmin, which causes liver damage, photosensitivity, and eczema in sheep which graze on the infected foliage. There are no known cases of Pithomyces causing infections in humans.
(Paul-EE-thrin-SEE-um) Polythrincium is a plant pathogen and can be found on leaves where it can act as a parasite. Polythrincium belongs to the Dothideomycetes class of fungi. Mycotoxin production is unknown and there are no known cases of infections from Polythrincium.
(pie-rick-you-lare-EE-uh) Pyricularia is known to occur in 85 countries worldwide and is found chiefly on grasses. This fungus belongs to the Sordariomycetes class of fungi. Pyricularia oryzae has been ranked among the most important agent of plant disease in the world. It is the causative agent of rice blast, the earliest known plant disease, which destroys an estimated amount of rice to feed more than 60 million people each year. Other Pyricularia species cause gray leaf spot and similar diseases in ryegrass and other cereal grains. Pyricularia can produce Tenuazonic acid, which has a wide spectrum of toxicity, including implications of incidences of Onyalai in Africa, mucosal hemorrhaging in the mouth and gastrointestinal tract. There are no known cases of Pyricularia infection.
(skop-you-LARE-EE-op-sis) Scopulariopsis grows on many substrates but is known as a saprophyte (living on dead and decaying materials) in the soil. Scopulariopsis belongs to the Sordariomycetes class of fungi. Containing 90 species, Scopulariopsis has several species which cause allergies and opportunistic infections in humans. Most often, Scopulariopsis causes onychomycosis (nail infections), especially in the toes. However, it can also cause more serious infections in immunocompromised individuals, such as sinusitis, endophthalmitis (eye infections), pulmonary infections, endocarditis (inflammation around the heart), and brain abscesses. Scopulariopsis is not known for mycotoxin production.
(speg-uh-ZIN-nee-uh) Spegazzinia has been isolated from the soil and has been found growing on wood and pineapples. Spegazzinia belongs to the Dothideomycetes class of fungi. Containing only 14 species, not much is known about Spegazzinia. There are reports that it is an endophytic (living inside) organism on lichens and plants. There are no known mycotoxins or cases of human infections from Spegazzinia species.
(stack-EE-bah-tris) Stachybotrys is the genus name for the notorious “Black Mold”. Stachybotrys grows on wood products, such as paper, wood, wallboard, etc. which are saturated with water. Stachybotrys chartarum is the most frequently encountered of the 83 species in this genus. Stachybotrys belongs to the Sordariomycetes class of fungi. Stachybotrys species can produce mycotoxins which may affect human health, such as Cyclosporins, Trichothecenes, Satratoxins, and more. Any evidence of disease associated with Stachybotrys is a result of mycotoxins; there is no evidence of Stachybotrys as a pathogen.
(stem-feel-EE-um) Stemphylium is commonly found in the soil, on dead and decaying plants, and live leaves as well. Stemphylium species thrive in high humidity (85-90%) and are causative agents in gray leaf spot and leaf blight in a wide variety of crops, including tomatoes, potatoes, and onions. Stemphylium belongs to the Dothideomycetes class of fungi and is the anamorph (asexual stage) of Pleospora. This species is considered allergenic and has been responsible for two reported cases of infection in immunocompromised people. In air samples and some bulk/swab/tape samples, Ulocladium and Stemphylium closely resemble each other, and occasionally Cerebella and Monodictys can also resemble Stemphylium.
(tet-tra-PLOWE-uh) Tetraploa are not well-known fungi. There are currently 11 species in this genus, which are typically found as saprophytes (living on dead or decaying materials). Tetraploa belongs to the Dothideomycetes class of fungi. There are two reported cases of Tetraploa infection; one was a cyst on a knee, the other an eye infection. Tetraploa is listed as one of the “allergically significant airborne fungal spores”. Tetraploa is not known to produce mycotoxins.
(toe-RUE-luh) Torula is a dematiaceous (dark), saprophytic (living on dead and decaying organic materials) fungi. Torula is a contaminant and should not be confused with Torula yeast, which is a common misnomer. Torula may have the ability to cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.
(trick-o-DERM-uh) Trichoderma species are found commonly in the soil throughout the world where they readily grow on decaying plant material and cellulose. Trichoderma is one of the more extensively studied molds, having unique attributes that have been incorporated in industrial processes as well in food production. Conversely, some Trichoderma species can colonize other fungi, sometimes with undesirable consequences. Species of Trichoderma have been found to infect, and thus negatively impact the farming of, common edible mushrooms. Though uncommon, Trichoderma has been known to act as an opportunistic pathogen in immunocompromised humans.
(Trick-o-the-see-um) Trichothecium is a saprophytic (living on dead and decaying organic materials) fungi and belongs to the Sordariomycetes class. Some species of Trichothecium can act as parasites of other fungi. Mycotoxin production is unknown and there are no known cases of infections from Trichothecium.
(yule-o-klaid-EE-um) The Ulocladium species are dematiaceous (dark) soil fungi which contain both plant pathogens and food spoiling species. Ulocladium belongs to the Dothideomycetes class of fungi. In immunocompromised patients, Ulocladium can cause phaeohyphomycosis. These fungi have no known mycotoxin production. In air samples, the Ulocladium and Stemphylium genera may resemble one another and thus may be grouped together rather than identified individually.
(zy-go-FIE-ell-uh) Zygophiala is a plant pathogen found in warm, humid areas. It is commonly found on apple and other waxy fruits where it causes sooty blotch and flyspec diseases. Zygophiala belongs to the Dothideomycetes class of fungi. It is not a known human pathogen and it is not known if Zygophiala produces mycotoxins.
